A women's studies doctoral candidate is making several appearances in Whitehorse this week to discuss the juncture between feminism, popular culture and cosmetic body modification.

Beth Pentney hopes to stimulate her audiences to think more critically about the media messages they are bombarded with daily.

One of her appearances included a presentation at the Whitehorse Public Library on Monday night, entitled Cosmetic Surgery and Popular Culture.

"We're immersed in a culture that is awash in cosmetic surgery," Pentney told the audience of about 20 people.

Pentney said cosmetic procedures are ubiquitous in celebrity culture, advertising, and even the health care field.

"Plastic surgery is creeping into the healthfulness discourse," said Pentney, who explained that retaining an appearance of youthfulness is often associated with being healthy.

Cosmetic procedures are a booming industry that Americans spent US $12.4 billion on in 2005, said Pentney.

There were 11.5 million cosmetic procedures performed in the U.S. that year, she added, 91 per cent of which were undertaken by women.

The top five surgical procedures in North America are liposuction, breast augmentation, eyelid surgery, rhinoplasty, and tummy tuck, said Pentney.

The five most popular non-surgical procedures are botox injections (to soften frown lines and wrinkles), laser hair removal, soft tissue fillers, microdermabrasion (to remove dead or damaged skin), and chemical peels.

During the initial stages of her research, Pentney said her reaction to these statistics was one of horror.

"I was asking myself, "why would people do this to their bodies?'" Pentney said.

She has found it's more constructive to learn about the context of cosmetic surgery instead of labelling all women who undergo such procedures as "vain, selfish, (or) dumb."

Pentney said cosmetic procedures have a long history. As an example, she said Europeans used skin from other parts of one's body, such as the upper arm, to replace nose cartilage lost to syphilis during the 15th century.

Pentney said plastic surgery became more commonly used following the First World War, when reconstructive surgeries were frequently performed on returning soldiers.

She said cosmetic surgery received further "validation" in the 20th century through "pop psychology". As an example of what she meant, Pentney cited the term "inferiority complex," which was coined by psychologist Alfred Adler.

"'Imperfect' bodies have become pathologized," said Pentney. "Cosmetic surgery is viewed as a tool in the quest towards self-improvement."

In the early 20th century, said Pentney, many cosmetic procedures were "arguably experimental in nature."

Pentney said past cosmetic practices have included injecting paraffin wax, goose grease, and nut-based oils into noses, or other body parts, and using liquid silicon or plastic sponges in breast implants.

An aging population that is also the wealthiest in human history is a likely contributor to the high rates of cosmetic surgery, Pentney said.

Cosmetic surgery is also a racial issue, she added, explaining that many women who belong to racial or ethnic minorities undergo procedures that will make their features appear more Caucasian.

"European bodies are perceived not just as the 'norm' but as the 'ideal'," said Pentney.

Common cosmetic procedures amongst Asian women include adding a "fold" to their eyelids or getting nose reshaping or breast augmentation, while African-American women most commonly choose liposuction, breast reduction, and nose reshaping, said Pentney.

In the discussion that followed, Pentney said she considers negative attitudes toward aging as "sexism in action."

She referred to derogatory terms used for older women such as "crone", "witch" or "cougar".

One of the few men in attendance said he disagreed, believing that aging is sometimes perceived negatively in men as well.

For instance, he said, men who pursue younger women are referred to as "cradle-robbers".

Pentney, originally from Lively, Ont., is studying at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, B.C.